As a counterregulatory hormone for insulin, glucagon plays a critical role in maintaining glucose homeostasis in vivo in both animals and humans. To increase blood glucose, glucagon promotes hepatic glucose output by increasing glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis and by decreasing glycogenesis and glycolysis in a concerted fashion via multiple mechanisms.
Growth differentiation factor 11 (GDF11), a member of the transforming growth factor β superfamily of cytokines, is a critical rejuvenation factor in aging cells. GDF11 improves neurodegenerative and neurovascular disease outcomes, increases skeletal muscle volume, and enhances muscle strength. Its wide-ranging biological effects may include the reversal of senescence in clinical applications, as well as the ability to reverse age-related pathological changes and regulate organ regeneration after injury.
GDF15 is a divergent member of transforming growth factor (TGF-beta). It is mainly expressed in the placenta, with low levels in the kidneys, pancreas and prostate. It has various biological functions.
It plays an important role in tumorigenesis and metastasis.
GDF15 has cardio-protective functions. GDF15 is also involved in iron homeostasis.
CRP is a pentameric protein synthesized by the liver, whose level rises in response to inflammation. CRP is an acute-phase reactant protein that is primarily induced by the IL-6 action during the acute phase of an inflammatory/infectious process. CRP has both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory properties. It plays a role in the recognition and clearance of foreign pathogens and damaged cells by binding to phosphocholine, phospholipids, histone, chromatin, and fibronectin. It can activate the classic complement pathway and also activate phagocytic cells.
Vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) and homovanillic acid (HVA) are end products of noradrenaline and dopamine metabolism. VMA and HVA may be determined in either 24-h urine collections or within single spot urine samples. The measurement of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), the main product of serotonin metabolism is in urine collected over 24h.
The HE4 gene encodes a WAP-type four disulphide core domain containing protein with a presumptive role in natural immunity. HE4 gene expression is highest in normal human trachea and salivary gland, but also active in lung, prostate, pituitary gland, thyroid and kidney.
HA is a high molecular weight linear polymer made up of repeating N-acetyl-glucosamine and β-glucuronic acid disaccharide units, with an abundant distribution throughout numerous species. This glycosaminoglycan polymer is an important constituent of the extracellular matrix. It is mostly synthesized by hepatic stellate cells and degraded by sinusoidal endothelial cells.
Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 2 is one of six similar proteins that bind insulin-like growth factors I and II (IGF-I and IGF-II). It can be secreted into the bloodstream, where it binds IGF-I and IGF-II with high affinity, or it can remain intracellular, interacting with many different ligands.
IFN-alpha stimulates the innate cell-mediated response and then participates in the transition of the initial host innate response into an effective adaptive-immune response. IFN-alpha also drives the adaptive cell-mediated CD8+ T-cell response and helps to maintain a CD4+ Th1-cell population balance for an effective antineoplastic and antiviral host defense.
Interleukine 1 alpha is a member of the interleukin 1 cytokine family. This cytokine is a pleiotropic cytokine involved in various immune responses, inflammatory processes, and hematopoiesis. This cytokine is produced by monocytes and macrophages as a proprotein, which is proteolytically processed and released in response to cell injury, and thus induces apoptosis.
Interleukin 1α (IL-1α) and IL-1β are equally potent inflammatory cytokines that activate the inflammatory process.