Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) has become the third key player of phosphate/calcium metabolism after PTH and vitamin D. FGF23 is a protein synthesized by osteocytes that acts mainly as a phosphaturic factor and a suppressor of 1α hydroxylase activity in the kidney.
Follistatin is an autocrine glycoprotein. Its primary function is binding and bioneutralization of members of the TGF-β superfamily. Follistatin-like 1 (Fstl1) is a secreted protein of the BMP inhibitor class.
FSTL1 is an extracellular glycoprotein widely expressed in human tissues and induced by ischemic stress and proinflammatory mediators. Follistatin-like protein 1 (FSTL1) is a secreted glycoprotein produced mainly by cells of mesenchymal origin. FSTL1 has been shown to play an important role during embryogenesis. FSTL1 is elevated in various inflammatory conditions and decreased during the course of treatment.
The glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFA protein or GFAP) is the major protein constituent of glial intermediate filaments in differentiated fibrous and protoplasmic astrocytes of the central nervous system. Proteins having similar molecular weights, isoelectric points, and immunoreactivity with GFAP have been found in cells of neural crest and ectodermal origin. A putative function ascribed to glial filaments is its role as a component of the cytoskeleton in defining and maintaining the shape of the astrocyte.
Growth differentiation factor 11 (GDF11), a member of the transforming growth factor β superfamily of cytokines, is a critical rejuvenation factor in aging cells. GDF11 improves neurodegenerative and neurovascular disease outcomes, increases skeletal muscle volume, and enhances muscle strength. Its wide-ranging biological effects may include the reversal of senescence in clinical applications, as well as the ability to reverse age-related pathological changes and regulate organ regeneration after injury.
GDF15 is a divergent member of transforming growth factor (TGF-beta). It is mainly expressed in the placenta, with low levels in the kidneys, pancreas and prostate. It has various biological functions.
It plays an important role in tumorigenesis and metastasis.
GDF15 has cardio-protective functions. GDF15 is also involved in iron homeostasis.
HA is a high molecular weight linear polymer made up of repeating N-acetyl-glucosamine and β-glucuronic acid disaccharide units, with an abundant distribution throughout numerous species. This glycosaminoglycan polymer is an important constituent of the extracellular matrix. It is mostly synthesized by hepatic stellate cells and degraded by sinusoidal endothelial cells.
Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 2 is one of six similar proteins that bind insulin-like growth factors I and II (IGF-I and IGF-II). It can be secreted into the bloodstream, where it binds IGF-I and IGF-II with high affinity, or it can remain intracellular, interacting with many different ligands.
IFN-alpha stimulates the innate cell-mediated response and then participates in the transition of the initial host innate response into an effective adaptive-immune response. IFN-alpha also drives the adaptive cell-mediated CD8+ T-cell response and helps to maintain a CD4+ Th1-cell population balance for an effective antineoplastic and antiviral host defense.
Interleukine 1 alpha is a member of the interleukin 1 cytokine family. This cytokine is a pleiotropic cytokine involved in various immune responses, inflammatory processes, and hematopoiesis. This cytokine is produced by monocytes and macrophages as a proprotein, which is proteolytically processed and released in response to cell injury, and thus induces apoptosis.
Interleukin 1α (IL-1α) and IL-1β are equally potent inflammatory cytokines that activate the inflammatory process.